第八十三章《胡适英文论著：中国思想史》（1）

第八十三章《胡适英文论著：中国思想史》（1）  intellectualchinain1919

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“thisisapartofalectureon‘buddhisticinfluenceonchinesethought’deliveredbeforethenovembermeetingofthepekinghistoricalassociation.thelecturewasdividedintothreeparts:literature,religion,andphilosophy.attheurgentrequestoftheeditorofthereview,thesecondpartofthislectureisherepublishedasitwasread.ihopethatimaybeabletorevisetheotherpartsbeforetheyappearinthisreview.”

—s.h.

therenaissanceinchina

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charlesa.beard,ed.,whithermankind:apanoramaofmoderncivilization.

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vol.lix,1928.

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brunolasker,ed.,problemsofthepacific,1931.

chicago:universityofchicagopress,1932.pp.471-477;499.

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aviewofimmortality

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theconceptofimmortalityinchinesethought

harvarddivinityschoolbulletin

chinesethought

harleyf.macnair,ed.,china.

berkeley:universityofcaliforniapress,1946.chap.xiii,pp.221-230.

thehistoryofchinesethoughtcanbedividedintothreeperiodsofaboutonethousandyearseach.theancientperiodcoversthemajorpartofthefirstmillenniumb.c.themedievalperiodcoversthefirstmillenniumofthechristianera,duringwhichtaoismandbuddhismflourishedinchina.themodernperiodofintellectualandphilosophicalrenaissancebeginsinthetenthcentury,withextensiveprintingofbooks,andcontinueswiththeriseofsecularchinesephilosophyintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.

theancientperiodincludestheclassicalage—theindigenous,original,andcreativeageofintellectualandphilosophicalactivity.itistheperiodofconfucius(551-479b.c.),laotzu,andmoti,ormotzu;ofmencius,chuangtzu,andhanfei(d.ca.233b.c.).(seechaps.xv,xvii,below.)philosophersoftheclassicalagearebetterknowntothewesternworldthanthoseoflaterperiods.theclassicalagenotonlysetthepatternofchinesethoughtofallsubsequentages,butalsofurnishedtheinspirationandintellectualtoolswithwhichchinesethinkersofthemedievalandmodernperiodslaboredfortheirphilosophicalandculturalrenaissance.

theintellectualheritageoftheclassicalperiodisthreefold.firstisitshumanism,withspecialemphasisonman,hislife,duties,andrelationsinthisworld.secondisitsrationalism,orintellectualism.(sincerationalismhassomethingofatheologicalconnotationinthewesternworld,theterm“intellectualism”maybepreferabletoindicateitsspecialemphasisonknowledgeandeducation.)thirdisitsspiritoffreedomanddemocracywhichchampionsthesupremeimportanceofthepeopleandadvocatesthesocialandpoliticalresponsibilityoftheintelligentsia.

theclassicalagewashumanisticinthatitconsistentlyanddistinctlyconcerneditselfwithhumanlife,humanconduct,andhumansociety.itscrupulouslyavoidedsupernaturalandotherworldlyproblems.whenconfuciuswasaskedhowtoservethegodsandthespirits,hereplied,“wehavenotyetlearnedtoservemen.howcanweservethegodsandthespirits?”asked“whatisdeath?”heanswered,“wehavenotyetlearnedtoknowlife.howcanweknowdeath?”upationwithmanandhislifeinthisworldisacharacteristicwhichdifferentiateschinesethought,atleastancientthought,fromthatofindia,persia,andisrael.

ausefulsourcebookonindianandchinesethoughthasbeencompiledbydr.linyutang,bearingthetitlethewisdomofindiaandchina.itisinstructivetocomparethesectiononindiawiththatonchina.theformerdiscussesthegods,futurelife,andthereligiouslife;thelatterdiscusses,inthemain,humannatureandhumanproblems,man’srelationtothefamily,thestate,andtheworld—education,government,andlaw.thisfundamentaldifferencerunsthroughthehistoryoftheintellectuallifeofthepeoplesofindiaandchina.ancientchina,whichproducedagreatcivilizationwithhighlydevelopedtheoriesofhumannature,moralconduct,andpoliticalorganization,seemstohavetakenlittleinterestinproblemsofreligion.itwasalmostprimitiveinitsreligiousandtheologicalthinking,andspentlittletimeinspeculationaboutlifeafterdeath.itisthepredominantinterestinmanandhisproblemsthatconstitutesthefirstheritagebequeathedbytheclassicalagetochina.

theclassicalageisnotedforitsstrictlyintellectualisticapproachtotheproblemsofthought.thechinesearetheleastmysticofpeoples,butamongthemwerethinkerswhotendedtowardmysticism.laotzu,forexample,declaresthatwithoutgoingoutdoorsonecanknowtheworldandthatwithoutpeepingoutthewindowonecanknowthewaysofheaven.hegoesontosaythatthefartheronegoesthelessoneknows—whichwouldappeartoconstituteamysticalapproach!but,onthewhole,theclassicaltraditionofchinaplacesmostemphasisonknowledge—onempiricalandexactknowledge,onlearningandthinking.

confuciuslaiddownthedictum,“learningwithoutthinkingisconfusing,butthinkingwithoutlearningisperilous.”thisobservationisrepresentativeoftheintellectualtraditionoftheclassicalperiod.oneofthelaterconfucianistsexpressedtheintellectualisticattitudeinafivefoldformula:“studywidely,inquireminutely,thinkcarefully,analyzeclearly,andthenpracticeearnestly.”

itwastheintellectualisticapproachthatledmostchinesescholarstostresstheimportanceofeducation,oflearning,andofthinking.themostinfluentialleaderinchina’snationallifeduringthelasttwenty-fivecenturies,theidolofcountlessmillionsofchineseyouth,wasnotamilitaryherooramessiah,butaschoolmaster—confucius.hedescribedhimselfmerelyasone“whonevergrewtiredoflearning,andnevergrewwearyofinstructingothers.”nevertogrowtiredoflearningorofinstructingothers—thatisindeedtheidealofaschoolmaster!confuciussumsuptheintellectualisticattitude—themostvaluableandcharacteristicgiftinheritedbychinafromtheancientperiod.

theclassicalagewasoneofmentalfreedomandindependence,anageofdemocraticideas.itbequeathedtolateragesaspiritoffreedomofthoughtandspeech,ofindependenceofcharacter,andoftheworthanddignityofpersonality.itwasprimarilyanageofindependentandwarringnations.becauseofthejuxtapositionandcoexistenceofsomanystates,athinkerpersecutedinonestatecouldusuallyfindpoliticalasylumandwelcomeinanother.itwasalsoanageinwhichthescholarlyclasswasmakingitsinfluencefeltontheinternalandexternalpoliciesofthestates.becauseofthesetwofactors,thoughtandspeechwererelativelyfreeandthethinkersoftheagewerefullyconsciousoftheirmoralresponsibilities.oneofthegreatdisciplesofconfuciussaid,“thescholarmustneedsbestout-heartedandcourageous,forhisburdenisheavyandhisjourneyislong.humanityistheburdenheimposesuponhisownshoulders:isthatnotaheavyburden?andonlydeathendshistoils:isthatnotalongjourney?”

thissenseofthegraveresponsibilityoftheindividual,especiallyoftheeducatedindividual,wassharedbymostofthesocialandpoliticalthinkersoftheclassicalage.mencius,whosemoralandintellectualinfluencewassecondonlytothatofconfucius,oftenspokeof“theindividualshoulderingtheheavyburdenoftheworld.”thesenseofsocialresponsibilityoftheintelligentsiaisapeculiarlychinesetradition.everychineseschoolboyremembersthesayingofkuyen-wu,aseventeenth-centurypatriot,“thehumbleindividual,howeverhumble,hasashareintheresponsibilityfortheprosperityorthedownfalloftheempire.”hemaynotrealize,however,thatthisremarkgoesbacktomenciusandtotheschoolofconfucius.

thefeelingofresponsibilitygivestotheeducatedindividualasenseofdignityandaspiritofindependence.menciussaid:“whoisthegreatman?thegreatmanishewhocannotbetemptedbywealthandhonor,whocannotbebudgedbypovertyandlowliness,andwhocannotbebentbyauthorityandpower.thatisthegreatman.”

fromthesenseofmoralresponsibilityforthewell-beingorthemisfortuneofthenationhasemergedtheclassicaltraditionoftheindividual’sdutytobeout-spokenandtofightunrighteousness,misrule,andcorruption.ithasbecomeatraditionforscholarstofightagainsttyrannicalmonarchsandcorruptofficialsintheinterestsofthestateandthepeople.fromthisstemschina’sfightforfreedomanddemocracythroughtheages.thedemocratictraditionhasdevelopedprimarilyfromconfucianism,oneofthemostorthodoxschoolsofthoughtoftheclassicalage.

inthehsiaoching(bookoffilialpiety),atinyclassicofdoubtfulauthorship,whichformorethantwothousandyearswasreadbyeveryschoolboyashisprimer,confuciusismadetosay:“inthefaceofunrighteousnessitisthedutyofthesontofightitoutbeforehisfatheranditisthedutyofaministertofightitoutbeforehissovereign.therefore,isay,inthefaceofunrighteousness,fightitout.”andinthemengtzu(worksofmencius),whichwasusedasasecondreader,menciustaught:“whenarulertreatshissubjectslikegrassanddirt,thenitistherightofhissubjectstotreathimasabanditandanenemy.”(seechap.i,above.)anyrulerviolatingtheprinciplesofbenevolenceandrighteousnessisnolongeraruler,butarobberandamurdererwhomthepeoplehaveadutytooverthrowandkill.