第八十八章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（5）

第八十八章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（5）  professordouglasjohnson,thenotedgeographerwhohadservedasanexpertwiththeamericanpeacedelegationinparisin1919,declaredinarecentpublicstatementthathesawnohopethatanyoftheschemesofinternationalpeacewould"everbringdurablepeacesolongaseachofthemlacksthatonevitalelementtomakeitpracticallyeffective."

"whatisthemissingelement?"heasks."itistheelementofforce,—forcetomaintainjustterritorialandeconomicsettlementsagainstattacksbyviolenceforselfishends,—forcetoimplementagreementstooutlawwar,restrainingthenationthatbattlesindefianceofitsmostsacredpledges,—forcetocompelresorttopeacefulmethodsofsettlingdisputes,—forcetoassureacceptanceofdecisionsreachedthroughorderlyproceduresmutuallyagreedupon,—forcetopreventarmedconquestofaneighbor'slands,—andforcetogiveallnationsthatsecurityandconfidencewhichistheessentialprerequisitetogeneraldisarmament."

withthisview,iamincompleteagreement.thenewworldorderwhichwewanttoseesetupafterthisterriblewarmustbea"leaguetoenforcepeace."itmustbeaninternationalorganizationbasedupontheprincipleofathreatofoverwhelmingpowertopreventaggressivewars.itmustcommandasufficientamountofinternationallyorganizedandinternationallysupportedforcefortheeffectiveenforcementofitsownlawandjudgement.

inshort,wewantanewworldorderwhichwilldevoteitsfirsteffortstotheorganizationoftheeconomicandmilitarypowerofthepost-warworldfortheeffectiveenforcementofinternationalpeaceandorder.allotherornamentalthingssuchas"internationalintellectualco-operation"canwait.firstthingsmustcomefirst.

iwasveryhappy,therefore,toreadthememorialdayspeechofyourundersecretaryofstate,mr.sumnerwelles,inwhichhedeclaredthatafterthiswar,theunitednationsshouldundertake"themaintenanceofaninternationalpolicepower"untilapermanentsystemofgeneralsecurityisfullyestablished.suchastatementofpolicybyaresponsibleofficialoftheamericangovernment,iamsure,willbesupportedbyallpeace-lovingnations.

but,letmewarnyou,therewillbestrongoppositiontosuchproposalsas"aninternationalpolicepower"or"aleaguetoenforcepeace."muchoftheoppositionwillsurelybeforthcomingfromwell-meaningpacifistswithstrongprejudicesagainsttheuseofforceasanecessarymeansfortheenforcementofpeace

wemustlearntothinkthatthereisnothingessentiallyevilinforcewhichisbutanothernameforthepowerorenergynecessaryfordoingworkorachievingends;thatforceisonlyaninstrumentwhich,ifproperlycontrolledanddirected,canbecometheverycornerstoneofjusticeandorder;andthatalllaw,allpeaceandorder,internalorinternational,areemptywordsiftheycannotbeeffectivelyenforcedbytheorganizedpowerofthecommunity.wemustrememberthesewisewordsutteredbythefrenchphilosopherpascalalmostthreehundredyearsago:

"justicewithoutforceisimpotent.

forcewithoutjusticeistyrannical.

wemust,therefore,combinejusticewithforce."

asiaandtheuniversalworldorder

contemporarychina

dec.14,1942.vol.ii.no.15.pp.1-4.

whatkindofworldorderdoesasiawant?whatproblemsdoesasiaexpectthisworldordertosolve?whatbenefits,national,international,continental,andworldwide,doesasiahopetoderivefromitsestablishment?whatcontributionscanthepeoplesofasiamaketothefuturewell-beingandcivilizationunderit?

noonecananswerthesequestionsinbehalfofasiaasawhole.whatihavetosayherebarelyscratchesthesurfaceofsomeofthesequestionsandonlyrepresentsthethinkingofanindividualasiaticwithsometraininginthinkinginternationally.needlesstoaddthatmyconclusionsarepredicatedontheconvictionthattheunitednationswillcompletelywinthewarandthereforewillbeinapositiontowinthepeace.

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thefirstandgreatestconcernofasiaandofmankind,afterthisterriblewar,willbesecurityandorder.withoutsomesatisfactorysolutionofthisprimordialproblem,allotherproblemsoffreedom,justice,economicwell-being,andculturaladvancementcannotbeessfullytackled.

thefirstproblem,therefore,istheestablishmentofaworldorderwhichwillaffordtoallnationssomeeffectiveformofcollectivesecurityandwillaimatmakingaggressivewarsimpossible.inthewordsoftheatlanticcharter,thisworldordershould"affordtoallnationsthemeansofdwellinginsafetywithintheirownboundaries."

itnowseemsfairlygenerallyagreedbythethinkingpublictheworldoverthatanyjuralinternationalordertobesetupafterthiswarmusthaveaninternationallyorganizedandinternationallysupportedforcefortheeffectivemaintenanceandenforcementofpeace,order,andlaw.mankindmustlearnfromthehistoryofinternalpoliticaldevelopmenttheplainlessonthatgovernmentbeginswiththepolicepower,thatis,thepowerofenforcingpublicorderandsafety.justasprivateindividualshavelearnedtoresigntotheirinternalgovernmenttheir"naturalright"topossessarmsandtotakejusticeintheirownhands,sonationsmustnowlearntorelymoreandmoreuponaninternationalorderfortheeffectivemaintenanceofcollectivesecurity.recenthistoryhasbroughthometousthepainfultruththat,inthismodernworldofours,nonation,howeverpowerful,cansingle-handedlydefenditselfagainstdeterminedarmedaggressionbypowerfulaggressorstates;thatinternationallawandsolemnlypledgedtreatiescannolongerprotectthepeacefulpeace-lovingstatesfromaggressivewars;thatnogeographicalisolationcanaffordsuchprotection;andthat,justaswarhasbecomeglobal,somustmankindseekpeacebymeansofaworldwidesystemofgeneralsecurity.

pacifists,religiousorphilosophical,neednotbescaredbytheconceptofinternationalpolicepowerforcollectivesecurity.itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthepolicingofgermanybyanglo-americantroops,orthepolicingofjapanbychinese,russian,andamericansoldiers.theconceptofcollectivesecurity,asiunderstandit,merelymeanstheorganizingoftheeconomicandmilitarypowerofthenationsunderdefiniteandunmistakabletermsofarrangementfortheexplicitpurposeofpreventingapossibleoutbreakofaggressiveinvasionandwar.itmeansthesettingupofmachinerywithclearlydefineddutiesandresponsibilitiesforthepossibleapplicationofeconomicsanctionsagainstwould-beaggressorstatesinwhatevercorneroftheglobe.anditmeansthepoolinganddistributionoftheinternationalpoliceforcefortheeffectiveimplementationoftheeconomicsanctionsagainstaggression.

letustakethecovenantoftheleagueofnationsasanillustration.itismyfirmbeliefthatifthemember-statesoftheleaguehadfromthestartworkedoutandsetupinternationalmachineriesforthepossiblecarryingoutofeffectiveeconomicsanctions,suchasoilembargo,armsembargo,mineralandmetalembargoagainstconceivablesourcesofaggression,ifsuchprocedurehadbeenworkedoutandsuchmachineriesofcontrolhadbeensetup,thewould-beaggressorswouldhavebeenfore-warnedandthecatastrophicwarmighthavebeenindefinitelypostponedandpossiblyaverted.unfortunately,theleaguewastedtwentyyearswithouteverworkingoutaprocedureandsettingupthenecessarymachineryforthepossibleinvocationofarticles10,15,and16oftheleaguecovenant.sowhenaggressioncameasitdidtochinain1931,toabyssiniain1935,tospainin1936,toaustriaandczechoslovakiain1938,theleaguewascaughttotallyunpreparedandtheaggressorscarriedtheday.

thereforeistronglyadvocatethattheframersofthenextpeaceshouldseektheadvicesofsuchgeologicalandmineralogicalexpertsassirthomashollandofbritainandprofessorc.k.leithoftheunitedstatesinworkingoutdetailedplansfortheeffectivecontrolofmineralsandmetalsasanessentialpartoffutureeconomicsanctionsagainstaggression.theunitednationscontrolmorethanthree-quartersoftheworld'sstrategicmineralandmetalresourcesandshouldhavenohesitationtoconvertthissourceofinternationalcontentionintoanefficaciousweaponofcollectivesecurity.

astothemilitaryaspectsofthisquestion,itisonlyneedfultopointoutthatwhenthewariswonbytheunitednations,theywillsurelyhavecompletecontroloftheseapoweroftheworld,andthatitshouldnotbedifficulttoworkoutsomesatisfactoryschemeofconvertinganadequateportionofthatoverwhelmingpowerintoapoliceforceofournewworldorder.

theconceptofinternationalpoliceandcollectivesecurity,inshort,merelymeansthatthetimehascomeforthecommunityofcivilizednationstothinkseriouslyaboutsomekindofajointpolicedepartmenttoregulatetraffic,tocontrolfires,andtodealwithcrime.thatispracticallyallthereistoit.

whatisnecessaryforustoemphasizenowistheplatitudinousfactthatlawandorder,nationalorinternational,donotmeantheabsenceofforce,butarealwaysdependentuponsomeformoforganizedforcefortheireffectiveenforcement.anyattempttosetupajuralorderofthenationswithoutsomeoverwhelmingforcetobackitsownlawandjudgmentwillinevitablybescrappedinfaceofdeterminedarmedaggression."justicewithoutforce,"saidpascalalmost300yearsago,"isimpotent.forcewithoutjusticeistyranical.wemust,therefore,combinejusticewithforce."

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whenthewarisover,asiawillhaveaboutadozenfreeandindependentstates:thesovietunion,china,japan,thekoreanrepublic,thecommonwealthofthephilippines,thailand,thecommonwealthofindia,afghanistan,iran,iraq,saudiarabia,andturkey.withtheexceptionofjapan,alltheseasiaticstatesarepeacefulandpeace-lovingstates.thedeep-rootedpacifistictraditionofchina,india,andkoreacannotbedoubted,andthattraditionwillgrowinanewworldwhereinaggressivewarswillbeplacedundercontrolthroughtheestablishmnentofasystemofcollectivesecurity.themoslemstateshavehadamartialtradition;butinanewworldorderwhereintheoldimperialismoftheeuropeanpowerswillbedeadorrapidlydisappearing,thereisamplegroundforhopethatthemoslemworldwillbeanimportantpowerforpeaceandcontinentalsolidarity.andthetrulyfundamentalchangeinrussianforeignpolicybroughtaboutsincethebolshevikrevolutionof1917hasmarkedthesovietunionasoneofthegreatpacifistpowersandoneoftheearliestadvocatesofcollectivesecurity.therecentlypublishedsoviet-britishtreatyofmay26,1942,furnishesthebestproofthattheu.s.s.r.willremainoneofthegreateststabilizingpowersinournewworldorder.

afewproblems,however,shouldbesatisfactorilysolvedbeforetheasiaticstatescansettledowntoenjoy"themeansofdwellinginsafetywithintheirownboundaries."

themosturgentofthesewillbethedisarmingofjapan.somenecessarystepswillbeundertakenbytheunitednationsduringtheperiodof"prolongedarmistice."thesestepswillmostprobablyincludethesurrenderoftheremainingjapanesenavy,airforce,andartillery;theinternationalcontrolofthemandatedislands;thedestructionofjapanesenavalbasesandfortificationsaswellastheevacuationofjapaneseforcesfromalloccupiedterritoriesonthecontinentofasiaandinthepacificislands.

allthesestepsareinthedirectionofdisarmingjapan.themostnecessarystep,however,willbethediscreditingofthemilitaristiccasteandthemilitaristicpolicybythefinaldefeatofherarmyandnavyandthedestructionoftheirremainingequipment.thisexplosionofthemythoftheinvincibilityofjapanesearmswillgoveryfartowardapsychologicaldisarmament.

equallyimportantwillbetheearlyestablishmentofaneffectivesystemofcollectivesecurityinthepostwarworld.aninternationalcontrolofthemandatedgroupsofislandsandtheorganizationanddistributionofaninternationalpoliceinasiaandthepacificarea,ibelieve,willhavethedesiredeffectofdiscouragingtherearmingofjapan.

effectiveinternationalcontrolofstrategicalmineralsandmetalsasanintegralpartofthesystemofcollectivesecuritywillbeanothermethodforthepreventionofjapaneserearmament.

thebasicdeficiencyofjapaninmineralsandmetalsneededforherindustriesmustbeconsideredasamostimportantfactorinanyfutureschemeofcollectivesecurity.ascientificandjudiciouscontrolofthesaletojapanofiron,steel,scraps,petroleum,antimony,aluminum,chromite,lead,nickel,manganese,tin,tungsten,andzincmayintimeresultinconvertingher"militaristic-industrialsystem"intoanindustrialsystemfortheproductionofgoodsforpeacetimeconsumptionandfortheeconomicwell-beingofherpeople.suchaninternationalcontrolofrawmaterials,ibelieve,canmosteffectivelyassistinthedisarmingofthose"nationswhichthreaten,ormaythreaten,aggressionoutsideoftheirfrontiers."

inshort,ibelievethatthedisarmingofjapancanbebestachievedbythedefeatofjapanesearms,thediscreditingofhermilitaristictradition,theestablishingofaninternationalschemeofgeneralsecurity,andajudiciousandefficientsystemofmetalandmineralcontrolasapartofthemachineryfortheenforcementofpeace.

anotherproblemofcontinentalandworldimportanceistherelationshipbetweenchinaandsovietrussia.japan'saggressionsinmanchuriasince1931haveturnedtheattentionofthesovietuniontothefareast,broughthundredsofthousandsofhertroopstothemaritimeprovincesandsiberia,andtherebymadeheroncemoreadominatingpoweronthepacific.beforethiswarisover,shewillinallprobabilitybeforcedtofightagreatanddifficultwarinthefareastagainstjapan,andonthesideofchina,theunitedstates,andcanada.

evenlongbeforerussia'sheroicresistanceturnedthetideofthewarinitseuropeantheatre,theu.s.s.r.hadalreadybeenextendingherhelpinghandtochinathroughoutthefiveyearsofourwarwithjapan.thisfriendlyassistancehasbeengiventochinawithoutanyconditionofterritorialconcession,ideologicalsurrender,orpoliticalinterference.theonlyformofrepaymenthasbeenabarterpaymentinchinesegoodsandmaterialsneededbyrussia.suchfriendlyrelationswillsurelydevelopintoclosertieswhenrussiaandchinawillbefightingthecommonenemyinasia.

itismysincerehopethatthetimewillsooncomewhenchinaandthesovietunionmayworkshouldertoshouldernotonlyinfightingacommonfoe,butinalltimestocome.withacommonfrontierextendingnearlyfivethousandmiles,chinaandrussiashouldworkoutapermanentschemeofpeace,non-aggression,mutualassistance,andgeneralsecurity,somewhatalongthesamelinesasthelatestbritish-soviettreaty.thehistoricexampleof3,500milesofundefendedcommonfrontierbetweencanadaandtheunitedstatescanbeemulatedbychinaandrussiatoourmutualbenefit.thepeaceandprosperityofasiademandsuchamutualunderstandingbetweenthesetwogreatcountrieswhichcomprisethree-quartersofthecontinent.

3

whatofthefutureofdemocraticdevelopmentinasia?

itismyfirmbeliefthattwogreathistoricalevents,namely,thedefeatofjapan,germany,anditalybytheunitednationsandtheestablishmentofanewworldordercapableofeffectiveenforcementofpeaceandgeneralsecurity,willgreatlyinspireandaidthespreadanddevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutionsinasia.inthisnewworld,china,thefirstnon-europeancountrytodiscardthemonarchy,toestablisharepublicanformofgovernment,andtoworkoutitsownconstitutionaldevelopment,willundoubtedlycontinueherdemocraticevolutionalongthemainlineslaiddownbydr.sunyat-sen.theu.s.s.r.,whichhasdefinitelycometothesideofthedemocracies,willcontinueherpoliticalevolutioninthedirectionofagreatsocialisticrepublicasoutlinedinherdemocraticconstitutionof1936,andherinfluencewillundoubtedlycontinuetobefeltthroughouteuropeandasia.thepeopleofindia,whohavehadthevaluableexperienceofactivepoliticalagitationandorganizationduringthelastquarterofacentury,willbeabletoworkoutsomeformoffederationunderademocraticconstitution.themoslemworld,followingtheessfulexperimentsofmodernturkey,mayalsoworkoutitsownformofconstitutionaldevelopment.evenjapan,undersuchfavorableconditions,mayyetsurprisetheworldbydevelopingamoremodernanddemocratictypeofconstitutionalmonarchy.

allthesedemocratictendencies,irepeat,willbegreatlyaidedandstrengthenedbythevictoryoftheunitednationsinthepresentwarandbytheessfulestablishmentofaworldsystemofcollectivesecurity.bothofthesehistoricalconditionsarenecessaryfortherevivalandrevitalizationofasia'sfaithinthedemocraticidealsandinstitutions.

for,wemustremember,thefaithofthepeopleofasiainthedemocraticformofgovernmenthasbeengreatlyshakeninthelastquarterofacentury.formanydecadespriorto1917,liberalsofasiahadbeenaccustomedtobelievethatrepresentativeconstitutionaldemocracywasunquestionablythemostperfectformofgovernmenteverinventedbythepoliticalgeniusofman.thefirstviolentattackondemocracycamewiththeconmunistrevolutioninrussia.itwasheldbytheadvocatesofthedictatorshipoftheproletariatthatrepresentativedemocraticgovernmentwasthepoliticalconcomitantofeconomiccapitalismandshouldbesmashedtogetherwithallothervestigesofbourgeoisrule.

thencametheequallyviolentattacksondemocraticgovernmentfromtheextremerightistreaction,fromfascistitalyandnazigermany.thesenewadvocatesoftotalitariandictatorshipswouldshouttousthatdemocracyisthedecadentformofgovernment,andthatthedemocraticnationsaredecadentpeoplesdoomedtobedominatedbythemorevigoroussuper-races."thegoddessofliberty,"saidmussoliniinmarch1923,"isdeadandherbodyisputrescent."

thesevehementattacksondemocraticidealsandinstitutions,whetherfromtheleftortheright,werecarriedoutbythemostaggressiveweaponofpropaganda.throughwhathitlerdescribesasthetechniqueof"thousandfoldrepetitionofthemostsimpleideas,"thisanti-democraticpropagandawasablegraduallytounderminethefaithofthousandsofpeopleinrepresentativedemocraticgovernment.ithascertainlyeededinconvertingthejapanesepeopleamongwhomihaveheardprofessed"liberals"tellmethattheanglo-saxonpeoplehadbecomedecadentandtheirpoliticalinstitutionshopelesslyantiquated.and,imustconfess,thispropagandahasalsomademanyconvertsinotherasiaticcountriesincludingmyown.

suchrepercussionsarequitenaturalandunderstandable.thesewaveringasiatics,beinghuman,cannothelpsometimesmistakingglamorousmilitaryefficiencyandessasevidencesofpossiblesoundnessinsocialorganizationandpoliticalphilosophy.

anyoneofmygenerationwhocanvividlyrecallthewonderfullythrillingandstirringexperienceonreceivingthenewsofthelastarmisticeofnovember,1918,andwhohaswatchedthegreatemotional,intellectual,social,andpoliticalupheavalsinthesubsequentmonths,canreadilyagreewithmethatacrushingdefeatofgermany,japan,anditalybytheunitednationsinthiswarwillsurelyhavetheelectrifyingeffectofrevivingandrevitalizingasia'sfaithindemocracy.suchafinalvictoryoftheunitednationswouldcompletelynullifytheevileffectsoftheanti-democraticpropagandaofthelasttwenty-fiveyears,andwouldtransformandrevolutionizethethoughtandimagination,andthewholesocialandpoliticaloutlookofmillionsuponmillionsofpeopleinasia.

buttheotherhistoricalcondition—theessfulestablishmentof"awiderandpermanentsystemofgeneralsecurity"—isequallynecessaryasaprerequisiteforthepeacefuldevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutionsintheasiaticcountries.woodrowwilsoniseternallyrightinlayingdownthegreatdictumthattheworldmustbemadesafefordemocracy.thegreattragedyofthelasttwentyyearshasbeenthattheworldhadnotbeenmadesafeforthepeacefulandpeace-lovingdemocracies.aworldthatcannotaffordsecurityandpeacetodenmark,norway,holland,andczechoslovakia,isaworldinwhichthemostpowerfuldemocracies,france,thebritishcommonwealthofnations,andtheunitedstates,cannotpossiblyfeelsafe.

theearlyhistoryofmankind,bothintheeastandinthewest,hastaughtusthatancientdemocraticstatescouldnotsurvivepowerfulforeignaggression.itwasnohistoricalaccidentthatthefirstmoderndevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutionstookplaceinthebritishislesprotectedforcenturiesbytheenglishchannelandtheenglishnavyfromcontinentalinvasion.norwasitmerehistoricalaccidentthatthesecondandmoreimportantdevelopmentofdemocraticgovernmentonanunprecedentedcontinentalscaletookplaceinnorthamericaprotectedbythetwogreatestoceans.acomparisonbetweenthehistoryoftheamericanrepublicandthefrenchrepublicduringthelast150yearswillconvinceusofthetremendousimportanceofthefactorofsecurityfromaggressionasanessentialconditionforthepeacefulandcontinuousdevelopmentofdemocraticlifeandinstitutions.

if,therefore,wearereallydesiroustoseedemocraticidealsspreadandprevailinthepostwarworld,wemustmakeournewworldordersoeffectivethatitshallbeabletomaketheworldsafefordemocracy.theworldmustnotforgetthatthesplendidmilitaryresistanceofsovietrussiaduringthepastyearhasbeenmadepossiblebytremendoussacrificeandpostponementofinternalsocial,economic,andpoliticalprogress.normustweforgetthattheconstitutionalconventionwhichwastoconveneonnovember12,1936,toratifythefinaldraftofademocraticconstitutionoftherepublicofchinahasbeenpostponedforsixyearsbecauseofthethreatofjapaneseaggressionandwar.

whateveruniversalworldordermaybesetupafterthiswar,therefore,mustdevoteitsveryfirstlaborstotheorganizationoftheeconomicandmilitarypowerofthenationsfortheeffectivemaintenanceandenforcementofpeace,justice,andorderlyrelationshipsthroughouttheworld.itmustcreatethenecessaryconditionforoneofthefourfreedoms,thefreedomfromfearofaggression,withoutwhichtheotherthreefreedomswillhavenolegtostandon.