第八十七章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（4）

第八十七章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（4）  dewey'sanswertothisquestionbeginswiththeobservationthat"forcefiguresindifferentroles.sometimesitisenergy;sometimesitiscoercionorconstraint;sometimesitisviolence."

"energyispowerusedwithaeulogisticmeaning;itispowerofdoingwork,harnessedtoaccomplishmentofends.butitisforcenonetheless—bruteforceifyouplease,andrationalizedonlybyitsresults."powerorenergy"denoteseffectivemeansofoperation;abilityorcapacitytoexecute,torealizeends.""itmeansnothingbutthesumofconditionsavailableforbringingthedesirableendintoexistence.""itisforcebywhichweexcavatesubwaysandbridges,andtravelandmanufacture.itisforcewhichisutilizedinspokenargumentorpublishedbook.nottodependuponandutilizeforceissimplytobewithoutafootholdintherealworld."

"exactlythesameforcerunningwildiscalledviolence.theobjectiontoviolenceisnotthatitinvolvestheuseofforce,butthatitisawasteofforce:thatitusesforceidlyordestructively."

"energybecomesviolencewhenitdefeatsorfrustratespurposeinsteadofexecutingorrealizingit.whenthedynamitechargeblowsuphumanbeingsinsteadofrocks,whenitsoutcomeiswasteinsteadofproduction,destructioninsteadofconstruction,wecallitnotenergy,butviolence."

"coerciveforceoccupiesamiddleplacebetweenpowerasenergyandpowerasviolence.""therearedifferentcentersofforceandtheygotheirwaysindependently.theycomeintoconflict;theyclashtwomenaredrivingoppositewaysontheroadandtheirvehiclescollide.thesubsequentwasteinquarrelingisascertainastheimmediatewasteinthesmash-up.therulethateachshallturntotherightisaplanfororganizingotherwiseindependentandpotentiallyconflictingenergiesintoaschemewhichavoidswaste,aschemeallowingamaximumutilizationofenergy.such,"saysdewey,"ifimistakenot,isthetruepurportofalllaw."

themostimportantthinginthistheoryisthatitcompletelyignorestheconventionalconnotationandtreats"force"aspowerorenergywhichachievesends.itbecomesviolenceonlywhenitrunswildandresultsinwasteordestruction."noends,"saysdewey,"areaccomplishedwithouttheuseofforcethecriterionofvalueliesintherelativeefficiencyandeconomyoftheexpenditureofforceasameanstoanend."

theotherimportantcontributionmadebydeweyishistheoryoflawastheformulationoftheconditionsoftheorganizationofforce.lawandgovernmentareinstrumentalitiesinstitutedtodealwithasituationof"actualorpotentialconflictandresultingwasteintheabsenceofsomeschemefordistributingtheenergiesinvolved."thesamecriterionofeconomyandefficiencyholdshere."touseenergytomakeamanobservetheruleoftheroadisacaseofcoerciveforcewhenitisexercisedtoassurethemeanswhichareneededfortheessfulrealizationofends,itisacaseofconstructiveuseofpower."

dewey'sinstrumentalisticconceptionofforceandoflawnaturallyledhimtoviewwithfavortheideaofaninternationalleaguetoenforcepeace."iflaworruleissimplyadeviceforsecuringsuchadistributionofforcesaskeepsthemfromconflictingwithoneanother,thediscoveryofanewsocialarrangementisthefirststepinsubstitutinglawforwar.""unlesspacifismputsitsfaithinconstructiveinventiveintelligenceinsteadofinanappealtoemotionsandinexhortation,thedisruptiveunorganizedforcesoftheworldwillcontinuetodevelopoutbreaksofviolence."

"thepassageofforceunderlawoccursonlywhenallthecardsareonthetable,whentheobjectivefactswhichbringconflictsintheirtrainareacknowledged,andwhenintelligenceisusedtodevisemechanismswhichwillaffordtotheforcesatworkallthesatisfactionthatconditionspermit."

ihavedugoutofthenowmoreorlessforgottenwritingsoftwenty-fiveyearsagothissimpleandreasonablephilosophyofforceandoftheorganizationofforce(whichislaw).ibelievethatsuchaphilosophyisbadlyneededasanintellectualaidtothepopularunderstanding,appreciationandsupportoftheideaofaninternationalorderbaseduponoverwhelmingforcebehindlaw.itwillhelpustorealizethatwhatiswrongwiththeinternationalsituationtodayisnotthatforceprevails,butthatforcedoesnotprevail.itwillhelpustounderstandthattherealtragedyofmankindtodayisthatthenationshaveneverlearnedtouseforceeffectivelyandefficiently,thatastupendousamountofpowerisbeingexpendedinmostwastefulanddestructiveways,andthatforcecannotprevailwhenitisnotorganizedanddirectedtowardssomecommonbeneficialend.itwillhelpustoseethattherealproblemforthepresentandforthefutureisnottocondemnforceintoto,nortodespairofpeaceandorderinthefaceofunprecedentedviolenceanddestruction,butrathertoprepareworldopinionforanotherandmoreintelligent"push"toorganizetheavailablepowerofthenationsinsuchamannerastoavoidwasteanddestructionandinsuremaximumefficiencyandeconomyinitsexpenditure.itwillhelpustorealizethatprobablythemostefficientandeconomicaluseofforceinhumansocietyistosocializeandinternationalizeit—toplaceoverwhelmingforcebehindthemaintenanceofinternationalpeaceandorder.

towinandkeepthepeace

thepeabodyreflector

dec.,1942.vol.15.no.11.pp.406-408.

naturallywearealldeeplyinterestedinthefuture,intheoutcomeofthepresentwarandofthepeacethatwillfollow.weareallconfidentthattheunitednationswillcomeoutcompletelyvictoriousinourcommonwaragainstourcommonenemies.butwearealsointerestedinthekindofpeace,thekindoffutureworld,thatwillcomeafterthiswar.

willthiswarbereallythelastwarthatwillendallwars?orwillitendasallpastwarsended—onlytobreakoutagainwithever-increasingbrutalityanddeadliness?

willthenewworldafterthewarbenearertoourheart'sdesireandworthyofallthegreatsacrificesofmankind?or,willallourwork,hardship,sacrificeandsufferingbeoncemoreinvain?

theobjectivesforwhichwearefightinghavebeenclearlystatedbythegreatleadersoftheunitednations.theyaresummarizedinthe8principlesofthe"atlanticcharter"which,aspresidentrooseveltsaidonfebruary23,1942,"appliesnotonlytothepartsoftheworldthatbordertheatlantic,buttothewholeworld."

theseprinciplesoftheatlanticcharterare:

(1)noterritorialorotheraggrandizement.

(2)noterritorialchangesthatdonotaccordtothefreelyexpressedwishesofthepeoplesconcerned.

(3)self-determinationofallpeoplesastotheformofgovernmentunderwhichtheywilllive;andrestorationofsovereignrightsandself-governmenttothosewhohavebeenforciblydeprivedofthem.

(4)accessbyallnations,onequalterms,tothetradeandrawmaterialsoftheworldneededfortheireconomicprosperity.

(5)collaborationofallnationsintheeconomicfieldstosecureimprovedlaborconditionsandsocialsecurity.

(6)establishmentof"apeacewhichwillaffordtoallnationsthemeansofdwellinginsafetywithintheirownboundaries,andwhichwillaffordassurancethatallthemeninallthelandsmayliveouttheirlivesinfreedomfromfearandwant."

(7)freedomoftheseas.

(8)ultimateabandonmentoftheuseofforcebyallnations;and,"pendingtheestablishmentofawiderandpermanentsystemofgeneralsecurity,"thedisarmamentofthosenations"whichthreatenormaythreatenaggressionoutsidetheirfrontiers."

inajointdeclarationsignedonjanuary1,1942,the26"unitednations"havesignifiedtheirsubscriptiontothiscommonprogramofpurposesandprinciples.

such,then,aretheacceptedobjectivesofyourcountry,mycountry,andourassociatesinourcommonfight.

thequestionthatisnowuppermostinourmind,is,howmuchassuranceistherefortherealizationofthesegreatprinciples?willtheybemutilatedasthegreatprinciplsofwoodrowwilsonweremutilatedatthepeaceconference?willthedisarmingoftheaggressors,forexample,bemoreessfulthanthedisarmingofgermanyafterthelastwar?willthepeace,whichistoaffordgeneralsecuritytoallnationsbemoreeffectiveandmoreenduringthantheleagueofnations?

weallhavearighttoaskthesequestions.theyoungmenwhoarealreadyinthefightingforces,orarebeingcalledtotheservices;themenandwomenwhoareworkinginthewarindustries,andthemenandwomenwhoaremakingallformsofsacrificesforvictory,—allthesehavearighttoaskthesequestions,andareactuallyaskingthem.

canourfaithintheseprinciplesbegivensomemeasureofreassurance?

nomancansatisfactorilyanswerthesequestionsorsatisfactorilyreassureusinourfaithinthesegreatobjectives.thekindofpeacethatwillfollowthewar,andthekindof"neworder"thatwillbecreated,willentirelydependuponthevision,thewisdom,theeffortwhichtheleadersofthenationscanapplytothetaskofmakingthepeace,andupontheintelligentsupportwhichthoseleaderswillreceivefromtheirpeoples.

inotherwords,thefuturewillbewhattheleadersandthepeoplesoftheworldcanmakeofit.

but,asastudentofhistory,iwouldliketospeculateonthefuturepossibilitiesofthesepeaceobjectivesinthelightofthehistoricallessonsofthelastworldwar.ibelievethatastudyofthecauseswhichwereresponsibleforthefailureofthewilsonianprogramofpeacemayhelpustoformsomeideaofthepossibilitiesofessintherealizationoftheroosevelt-churchillprogramofworldpeace.

fromthishistoricalview,ihaveformedmypersonalbeliefthatwehaveabetterchancetowinajustandeffectivepeacethistimethanthelasttime.myopinionisbasedonthefactthatsomeofthehistoricalcauseswhichdefeatedwilsonandhisidealisticpeaceprogramfortunatelyeithernolongerexisttodayorexistonlyinmuchdiminishedforce.

inthefirstplace,therearenoaggressorstatesamongthealliedandassociatednationsonourside.

youwillrecallthatthegroupofalliedpowerswhichfoughtgermanyinthelastwar,includedjapanandtsaristrussia.itwastoounholyanalliancetobeafertilesoilforwilsonianidealism.itwasafterthemarch(1917)revolutioninrussiathatwilsonfeltmoreateaseindecidingtoassociatewiththealliednationsinthewar.

inthisrespect,theinternationalalignmentinthepresentwarismuchmoreclearlyandrationallydefined.alltheaggressorstateshavenowflockedtogetherbyidealogicalaffinity,andthe28unitednationsonthewholecanbeclassedasagroupofpeacefulandpeace-lovingnations,eagertoco-operatetobringaboutajustanddurablepeace.

inthesecondplace,thereexistamongtheunitednationsnosecrettreatiesofterritorialaggrandizementordivisionofspoils.

thelastwarbeganasapurelyold-fashionedwarofpowerpoliticsandonlyatverylatestagestookonsomeidealisticcoloringundertheimpactofwilsonianinfluence.thisnewconversioncamesolatethatmanysecrettreatiesofintrigue,bribery,anddivisionofspoilshadlongbeenconcludedamongthealliedpowers.itwasthosesecrettreatieswhichlatercausedsomuchtroubleforwilsonbothatparisandinamerica.thewilsonprogramofidealisticpeacewasmutilatedandwreckedlargelybythesesecrettreaties.

inthisrespect,thesecondworldwarpresentsamuchmorefavorableoutlookforthefuture.thepresentwarhasfromtheverybeginningassumedthegeneralcharacterofaclearlydefinedfightfornationalfreedomagainstwantonaggression.fromthebritishandfrenchpledgestopolandandgreecein1939,theatlanticcharterof1941andtheunitednationsdeclarationof1942,tothesoviet-britishtreatyofmay,1942,therehavebeennosecrettreatiesofbriberyorterritorialaggrandizementconcludedamongthecountrieswhichnowformtheunitednations.theabsenceofsecrettreatiesandtheexistenceofsuchopenandidealisticdeclarationsastheatlanticcharter,ibelieve,willgreatlyenhancethechancesofessofidealisticandconstructivestatesmanshipinthepeace-makingafterthiswar.

inthethirdplace,ibelievetheworldhaslearnedmuchintheseterribleyears,andmaybemorereadytorecognizetheneedforabetterandmoreeffectivepeace.

theworldatlargein1919certainlywasnotquitereadytounderstandandacceptthewilsonprinciples.thearmisticeofnovember,1918,camesounexpectedlyearlythateventhebestmindswerenotfullypreparedforthegreattaskahead.manynations,—theneutralsandevensomeofthealliesandassociatesinthewar,—hadnotbeenseverelytouchedbytheevileffectsofthewar.theradiohadnotcome;theairplanewasstillanovelandineffectiveweapon;thegreatspaceoftheoceansstillgaveampleprotectiontoseveralcontinents.manypeoplesstillthoughtthatitwaspossibletokeepoutofwars,howevergigantictheymightbe.neutralityandisolationwerestillconsideredpossible.andtomanypeople,wilsonianismappearedshockinglyaggressiveintryingtointerfereinworldpolitics.

inthisrespect,wehavelearnedbetter—atleastweshouldhavelearnedbetterintheseyears.

therearenowpracticallynoneutralcountriesleftineuropeoranywhereelse.themostpeacefulandmostpeace-lovingcountrieshavebeenruthlesslyinvadedandconqueredbytheaggressors.thegreatestoceansnolongeraffordprotectiontotheformerlyisolatednations.themostpowerfulnationintheworld,—theunitedstates,—hasbeenattackedandhassufferedunprecedenteddefeats.

allthesehavebroughtaboutanewandmorerealisticwayofthinkingonworldaffairs.presidentroosevelt,inhisspeechofdecember9,1941,hasputitmostforcefully:

"itisourobligationtoourdead—itisoursacredobligationtotheirchildrenandourchildren—thatwemustneverforgetwhatwehavelearned.

"andwhatweallhavelearnedisthis:

"thereisnosuchthingassecurityforanynation—oranyindividual—inaworldruledbytheprinciplesofgangsterism.

"thereisnosuchthingasimpregnabledefenseagainstpowerfulaggressorswhosneakupinthedarkandstrikewithoutwarning.