第八十六章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（3）

第八十六章《胡适英文论著：中国外交》（3）  mr.president,yourexcellencies,membersandguestsoftheeconomicclubofnewyork:

nearlytwoyearsago,onmay9,1940,theeconomicclubofnewyorkdidmethegreathonorofinvitingmetoaddressyourannualdinnerinthissamehall.itwasjustonemonthafterhitlerhadinvadeddenmarkandnorwaybyair,seaandland.onthatoccasionispoketoyouonthethesisthatthewarineuropeandthewarinchinaweremerelytwophasesofoneandthesamewar—thesecondworldwar,whichbegannotinseptember,1939,butinseptember,1931,whenjapanfirstinvadedmanchuria.

isaidineffect:"thesecondworldwarbecameinevitablewhenthepostwarworldorderwasattackedandscrappedbytheaggressiveactsofjapan.inthisworldofours,waraswellaspeaceisindivisible.aworldthatcouldnotgivechinapeaceandsecurity,isaworldinwhichnonation,greatorsmall,canfeelsecure.andacivilizationwhichcannotaccordprotectionandsecuritytodenmark,norway,andsweden,threeofthemostcivilizedcountriesontheearth,isacivilizationnotworthpreserving!"

youmayrecallthatonthatmemorablenightofmay9,1940,asyouleftthishallandboughtthemidnighteditionsofthemorningpapers,youwereagainshockedbythenewsthathitler'spanzerdivisionshadinvadedholland,belgiumandluxembourgat5:30a.m.europeantime!

amonthlater,italyenteredthewar.sixweekslater,francecapitulated.thebattleoffrancewaslost.

inseptember,1940,japan,germanyanditalysignedthetripartitepactofalliance.

fromjune22,1940,whenfrancesignedthearmisticewithgermany,tojune21,1941,whengermanyinvadedsovietrussia,—forawholeyear,therewerepracticallyonlytwogreatpowersleftfightingtheaggressors:therewereonlychinafightingjapaninasiaandthebritishempirefightinggermanyanditalyineuropeandafrica.

thenthetidebegantoturn.thegermanattackonsovietrussiaonjune21,1941,andtheheroicandessfulresistanceoftherussianarmyandpeopleeversince,haveradicallychangedthepictureofthewarineurope.

buttheaxispartnersinaggressionwererapidlymovinginotherpartsoftheworld.amonthafterthegermaninvasionintorussia,japanwasmovingtroopsintosouthernindo-china.onjuly23,thevichyregimeacceptedthejapanesedemandsforcompletemilitaryoccupationoffrenchindo-china,which,astheworldsoonrealized,wastobemadethebaseforjapaneseinvasionsintothailand,malaya,singapore,thephilippines,andthenetherlandeastindies.

onjuly25,presidentroosevelt,inthehopeofeffectivewarningjapanagainstfurtheraggressioninthesouthernpacific,issuedanexecutiveorderfreezingalljapaneseassetsintheunitedstates.thisstepofeconomicembargoagainstjapanwasfollowedbyboththebritishempireandthenetherlandeastindiesgovernments.alltradeandshippingbetweenjapanandthesecountriesvirtuallycompletelyceased.

inaugust,presidentrooseveltandprimeministerchurchillmetsomewhereintheatlanticoceanandonaugust14the"atlanticcharter"wasproclaimedtotheworld.

inthemeantime,formanymonths,thejapaneseambassadorwascarryingon"peace"conversationswithyourgreatsecretaryofstate.innovember,japansentaspecialambassadortoassistinthenegotiations.

underthecloakofthesepeaceconversations,japan'smilitaryrulerswereactivelypreparingforaconcertedsurpriseattackontheimportantpacificoutpostsoftheunitedstatesandthebritishempire.thisconcertedattackcameondecember7.

withinafewdaysaftertheattackonpearlharbor,morethanascoreofnationsdeclaredwaragainstjapan,germanyanditaly.onjanuary1and2,1942,ajointdeclarationwassignedinwashingtonbytherepresentativesof26unitednations.

theunitednationscomprisetheunitedstates,ninecountriesofcentralamericaandthecaribbeansea,sixmembersofthebritishempireincludingindia,thesovietunion,china,thenetherlands,andsevenothereuropeannationswhoseterritorieshavebeenoverrunbytheaxispowers.

bythetermsofourjointdeclaration,theunitednationshavesolemnlypledgedtoemployourfullresources,militaryoreconomic,inourcommonfight,andnottomakeaseparatearmisticeorpeacewiththeenemies.

inthepreambleofourjointdeclaration,theunitednationshavesignifiedtheiradherencetothecommonprogramofpurposesandprinciplesasembodiedintheatlanticcharter.itisnottruethattheatlanticcharterislimitedtotheatlanticarea.theseprinciples,saidmr.cordellhullonaugust14,"areuniversalintheirpracticalapplication."

chinaasthenationwhichhasbeenfightingaggressionforthelongesttime,hasmorethanoncereaffirmedherunfalteringandunswervingfaithintheseprinciplesandhas,inthewordsofgeneralissimochiangkai-shek,offeredtotheunitednations"allweareandallwehavetostandwithyouuntilthepacificandthewholeworldarefreedfromthecurseofbruteforceandendlessperfidy."

letmetakethisopportunitytoexpressthegratificationofmygovernmentandmypeopleinthehistoricfactthatchinaisnownolongerfightingalonebutisfightingonthesamesidewith25alliednationsincludingthreeofthegreatestpowersintheworld.letmeassureyouthattousinchinathisisagreatdreamcometrue,agreatfaithtardilybutatlastfullyvindicated!

butithastakenalong,longtimeforthisdreamtocometrue!chinahadhadtofightalonefortwoyearsandtwomonthsbeforetheeuropeanwarbrokeout.shehadhadtofightaloneforfullyfouryearsbeforetheunitedstatesandthebritishempirebegantoenforceacompleteeconomicembargoagainstjapan.shehadhadtofightaloneforfouryearsandfivemonthsbeforethetreacherousactsofjapanforcedyouandtheotherunitednationstodeclarewaronher.

thefaithofmypeoplehasnowbeenvindicated.butvictoryisnotyetinsight.butmypeoplehavenottheslightestdoubtabouttheultimateandnottoodistantvictoryofourcommonfightagainstourcommonfoes.letmeassureyouthatmypeoplewillnotceasefightinguntilthatultimatevictoryiswon.mypeoplewhohavebeenfightingforoverfouryearsandahalfsingle-handed,willneverdesertyouandtheotherunitednations,butwillworkwithyouandfightwithyouuntilthecomingofthatdaywhen,inthecheeringwordsofmr.roosevelt,"thesunshinesdownoncemoreuponaworldwheretheweakwillbesafeandthestrongwillbejust."

peacehastobeenforced

asiamagazine

may,1942.vol.xlii.no.5.pp.263-266.

thereisnodenyingthattherewasakindofworldorderbeingbuiltupafterthefirstworldwar.asonewholivedthroughthosedaysofworldagonyandanguish,andasonewhocomesfromacountrygreatlybenefitedbythatpostwarinternationalorder,imustsolemnlytestifythatitwasarealthing.

but,beginningwiththejapaneseinvasionofmanchuriain1931,theworldrevertedtointernationalanarchyandthe"lawofthejungle."themoralofthistragichistoricallessonshouldbeplaintoallwhocanread:itisthatpeacemustpresupposeaneffectivelymaintainedorderorruleoflaw;andthatlawandorderdonotmeantheabsenceofforcebutarealwaysdependentuponsomeeffectiveformoforganizedforcefortheirmaintenanceandenforcement.peace,inshort,musthavepowertoenforceitself.

theleaguetoenforcepeacewhichwasstartedin1915wasthespiritualfatheroftheleagueofnations.thisgreatmovementwassponsoredbymenwhounderstoodhumanpsychologyandwerewiseenoughnottoindulgeinimpracticableutopianideas.theplanwascontainedinfoursimplearticles.articleirequired"alljusticiablequestionsarisingbetweenthesignatorypowers,notsettledbynegotiations"tobesubmittedtoajudicialtribunalforhearingandjudgment.articleiistipulatedthat"allotherquestionsnotsettledbynegotiationshallbesubmittedtoacouncilofconciliationforhearing,considerationandrecommendation."theheartoftheideaoftheleaguetoenforcepeacelayinarticleiii:"thesignatorypowersshalljointlyuseforthwithboththeireconomicandmilitaryforcesagainstanyoneoftheirmemberthatgoestowarorcommitsactsofhostilityagainstanotherofthesignatoriesbeforeanyquestionarisingshallbesubmittedasprovidedintheforegoing."articleivprovidedforperiodicconferencestoformulateandcodifyrulesofinternationallawwhichshallgoverninthedecisionsofthejudicialtribunal.

presidentlowellofharvard,intellingintheatlanticmonthlyofaugust,1940,thestoryoftheleaguetoenforcepeace,hadamoralforusinourpresentworldcrisis.hewantedallhonestandunselfishpeopleworkingforpermanentpeaceonearthtoreacha"unityofplanthatwillcommandgeneralrespect,andhavesomechanceofpopularadoption."hewarnedusthat"peopleseemtothinkthatdevisingsomenewvariantisaddingtothewealthofexpedientsfromwhichachoicemaybemade,whereasitisreducingthechanceofagreementuponanyeffectivepolicy."

althoughdr.lowellmodestlyregardedtheleaguetoenforcepeaceasamovement"whichfailed,"iamstillinclinedtothinkthatthecentralideaofthatmovement—namely,"somekindofinternationalorganizationbasedupontheprincipleofathreatofoverwhelmingpowertopreventaggressivewar"—wasmorepracticalandfeasiblethananyotherplanthathassofarbeenestedbyourinternational-mindedthinkers.thisideahasneverbeengivenafairtrial.itwassupposedlyembodiedinarticlexviofthecovenantoftheleagueofnations,butthecomplacentmembersoftheleaguethoughtsolittleofthe"sanctions"orweresofearfulofthemthattheleaguenevermadepreparationsforthepossibleapplicationofthatarticletowould-beaggressorstates.whenarticlexviwasatlonglastinvokedin1935inthecaseofitalianinvasionintoethiopia,theitaliandelegateaskedintheassembly:"why,inthesino-japaneseconflictandinthechacoaffair,hadtherebeennotalkofsanctions?"andevenintheitalian-ethiopianconflicttherewasonlyapplicationofapartoftheeconomicsanctions,whichwerewithdrawnassoonastheethiopianresistancehadcollapsed.therewasnoattempt,noranyseriousthought,ofapplyingeffectivemilitary,navalorairforce"toprotectthecovenantsoftheleague."nowonderthatthedelegatefromtheunionofsouthafricaraisedthequestionduringtheassemblydebate:"didthefiftynations,whentheysolemnlyboundthemselvestocollectiveactionunderthecovenantoftheleague,maketheessfulresistanceofethiopiaaconditionprecedenttothefulfillmentoftheircollectiveobligation?"andtherighthonorableanthonyedenfranklyreplied:"inourviewitisonlymilitaryactionthatcouldnowproducethisresult[ofreestablishingethiopia].icannotbelievethat,inpresentworldconditions,suchmilitaryactioncouldbeconsideredapossibility."sosanctionswerewithdrawnandethiopiawasabandoned.

incontrasttosuchaweakorganization,thenewworldorderwhichwewanttohelpsetupafterthepresentwarmustbeareal"leaguetoenforcepeace."onlysuchaleaguewithoverwhelmingpowertoenforcelawandordercanavoidthemistakesandremedytheweaknessesoftheoldsystemofinternationalorder.

asonewhonotonlywasoneofthefirstconvertstotheideaofaleaguetoenforcepeace,butalsohasbeenoneofitsphilosophicaldefendersforexactlyaquarterofacentury,inowproposetoconsidersomeofitsphilosophicalimplications.mypurposeistotrytobreakdownsomeoftheprejudicesagainsttheideaofforceasanessentialfactorinthemaintenanceofpeaceandorder.itistruethatprejudicescannotbeclearedupbyargumentorlogic.butitisalwayspossiblethat,byanalyzingaprejudiceintoitselementalingredients,onemayconverttheunconsciousassumptionsintoconsciousideasandtherebymakethemopentothoughtandreasoning.

themostdeep-rootedobjectionstotheideaofenforcementofpeacebyoverwhelmingpowerhavecomefromthereligiouspacifists,theadvocatesof"moralrearmament"andthebelieversinthedoctrineofnonresistance.inthefirstdaysofthemovementfortheleaguetoenforcepeace,somespeakercoinedthewitticismthatithadput"fist"inthepacifist.butmanypacifistshavecontinuedtoobjecttothe"fist."tothem,norealpeaceandordercanbebuiltuponarelianceonforceorpower.

letustaketheextremedoctrineofnonresistance,andseeifitsgreatteachersreallymeanttoimplyanabsolutedenialoftheuseofforceorpower.parenthetically,iwishtoconfessthatformanyyearsiwasareasonedbelieverinthedoctrineofnonresistanceandwrotemuchbothinproseandinverseaboutit.iwasgreatlyattractedbythedoctrine,first,asitwastaughtbythechinesephilosopherlaotzemorethanfivehundredyearsbeforechrist,and,later,asitwastaughtbyjesusinthesermononthemount.in1915,whentheleaguetoenforcepeacewasstarted,iwasstilla"nonresister."itoothoughtthatanyuseofforceorrelianceonforcemustbeincompatiblewiththedoctrineofnonresistance.ittookmemanyyearstorealizethat,whateverthedoctrinemaymean,itwasneverintendedtobeacondemnationofallforceorpower.ibegantounderstandthatthedoctrineofnonresistancecanonlymeaneitherthatnonresistanceisundercertainconditionsaneffectiveformofresistance,orthatnonresistanceisinrealitytheindividualyieldingtherightofrevengetoahigherandsupposedlymoreimpartialpower.inneithercaseisthereanabsolutedenialofpowerorforce.

thefirstofthesetwointerpretationscamefrommyprofessordr.johndewey,who,in1916,wrote:"thenonresistancedoctrinecanmeanonlythat,givencertainconditions,passiveresistanceisamoreeffectivemeansofresistancethanovertresistancewouldbe.sarcasmmaybemoreeffectivethanablowinsubduinganadversary;alookmoreeffectivethansarcasm."

thisviewisamplyborneoutbytheteachingoflaotzeandhisfollowers,whooftenexplicitlymaintainthattheweakcanconquerthestrongandthesoftcanovercomethehard.laotzefrequentlyuseswaterasanillustrationoftheefficacyofnonresistance."nothingintheworldissofterandmoreyieldingthanwater.yetthosewhocanstormastrongholdcannotovercomewater.""becauseitresistsnot,itisthereforeirresistible."

butthedoctrineofnonresistanceiscapableofanotherinterpretation.itcanbeinterpretedtomeananotherwayofsaying"vengeancebelongethtogod."bothlaotzeandjesuswereconvincedoftheexistenceandrealityofasupremepowerandawell-ordereduniverseundertheruleofthatpower.thatsupremepower,jesuscalledgod,andlaotzecalledtao,orthewayofheaven.insteadofdenyingforce,thedoctrineofnonresistanceassumesasitsveryfoundationtherealityofasupremepowerorforce.therealissueinvolvedinthisdoctrineisnotwhetherforceisjustifiableorcondemnable,butwhether"vengeanceandrecompense"shouldbecarriedoutbytheinterestedpartiesthemselvesorshouldbeleftwiththathigherandimpartialpower.

asjesusdescribesthatsupremepowerwithsuchpoeticappeal:"arenottwosparrowssoldforafarthing?andoneofthemshallnotfallonthegroundwithoutyourfather.buttheveryhairsofyourheadareallnumbered.fearyenottherefore,yeareofmorevaluethanmanysparrows."thisfaithinaworldorderwhereinanomniscientandomnipotentpowerreignssupremeisthefoundationoftheteaching"thatyeresistnotevil."insuchanorder,thereisnoneedfortheindividualtobehisownjudgeandtakethelawuntohimself.thusjesustaughthisfollowerstopray:"thykingdomcome.thywillbedoneonearthasitisinheavenforthineisthekingdom,andthepower,andtheglory,forever."

amoreorlesssimilarconceptionofasupremeorderunderliestheancientchinesedoctrineofnonresistance.laotzeconceivesoftheuniverseasanorderwhichseemstodonothingyetachieveseverything.thussayshe:"itisthewayofheavennottostrive,butnonethelesstoconquer;nottospeak,butnonethelesstorespond;nottobeckon,yetthingscomeofthemselvesthenetofheaveniswide;itsmeshesarecoarse,butnothingslipsthrough."

againhesays:"thereisalwaysthegreatexecutionerwhoexecutes.todothistaskforthegreatexecutionerislikedoingchippingforthemaster-carpenter.hewhodoesthemaster-carpenter'schippingforhimrarelyescapescuttinghisownhand."

inthesepassagesaresetforthlaotze'sconceptionofawell-ordereduniversewhereinthewayofheaven(whichalsomeansthelawofnature)rulesapparentlyindifferentlyandnonchalantly,butalwayseffectivelyandabsolutely.itisthisfaithinauniversalorderandinthepowerofthe"wayofheaven"embodiedinthatorderwhichunderlieslaotze'steaching:"requiteinjurywithkindness.""hewhoresistsnotisirresistible."

itis,therefore,amistaketothinkthatthegreatteachersofnonresistancehaveintendedthatweshouldcondemnalluseofforce.undercertaincircumstances,passiveresistancemayproveamoreeffectiveforcethanphysicalviolence.butunderothercircumstanceseventhegreatteacherofnonresistancedidnothesitatetouseforcetodrivethevendersandmoney-changersoutofthetempleofgod.and,behindallthesublimeteachingofnonresistance,thereisalwaysthedeepconvictionthatthereexistsasupremepowerrulingovertheuniversalorderandthatjudgmentandtheexecutionofjudgment(thatis,vengeanceandrecompense)shouldbeleftwiththatsupremepower.

whenthatconvictionisweakened,whenhumansufferingbecomessoacuteandwidespreadandthatsupremepoweranddivinejusticeseemssoslowinmanifestingitself,thenmenwillcryoutindespair,withtheancientpsalmist,"lord,howlongshallthewicked,howlongshallthewickedtriumph?""whowillriseformeagainsttheevil-doers?whowillstandupformeagainsttheworkersofiniquity?"

allhumanprogressinlawandgovernment,internallyandinternationally,isinasenseanimitation,howeverimperfect,ofthatsuprememoralorderimpliedinthedoctrineofnonresistance,bycreatingonearthsomehigherpowertowhichallinterestedpartiesinadisputemayresigntheirprivateand"natural"rightsofredressinginjuryandadministeringroughjusticebythemselves.thousandsofyearsofpoliticalexperiencehavetaughtmankindtoaccepttheuseoforganizedforcefortheestablishmentandmaintenanceofinternallawandorderasamatterofcourse.shallwestillallowourprejudicestoblindustothenecessityoftheuseoforganizedforceforthecreationandpreservationofpeaceandorderinternationally?

thisdiscussionoftheimplicationsofthedoctrineofnonresistanceisintendedtoclearthewayforamorepositiveconceptionofthenatureofforceanditsplaceandfunctioninhumansociety.theneedforsuchanewconceptionofforcewaskeenlyfeltinthoseyearsofthepreviousworldwar,andanumberofthinkersandpublicmenwerecompelledtogivemuchseriousthoughtandattentiontothequestion.butthewarwassoonoverandtherecametheeraofexorbitanthopesandexpectations.thelastgreatwartoendallwarshadbeenfoughtandwon.theproblemofthenatureandfunctionofforceseemednolongerpressingandwassoonignoredandforgotten.

aquarterofacenturypassedaway,andmankindisoncemorefacedwiththeproblemofforceandhowtodealwithit.asilookoverthepoliticalandphilosophicalwritingsofthosethought-provokingyearsofthepreviouswar,ihavefoundnotafewfruitfulideaswhichareaptlyapplicabletoourowntimes.

johndewey,writingearlyin1916,proposedaveryimportanttheoryofforceandatheoryoflawbaseduponit."whatisforce,"askeddewey,"andwhatarewegoingtodowithit?thisistheacutequestionofsocialphilosophyinaworldlikethatoftoday.agenerationwhichhasbeheldthemoststupendousmanifestationofforceinallhistoryisnotgoingtobecontentunlessithasfoundsomeanswertothequestionthisexhibitionhasstirredintobeing."howstrikinglyuptodatethesewordsoftwenty-fiveyearsagosoundtoday!