第七十九章《胡适英文论著：民族危机与公共外交》（4）

第七十九章《胡适英文论著：民族危机与公共外交》（4）  (3)itmustrestoreandgreatlystrengthentheinternationalorderforthepacificregionsothatorderlyandjustinternationalrelationshipsshallprevailandrecurrenceofsuchanaggressivewarshallbeimpossible.

irepeat:suchajustandenduringpeaceisnotinsight,andthereforemypeoplearedeterminedtofightonuntilsuchapeaceisachieved.

themodernizationofchinaandjapan

ruthnandaanshen,ed.,freedom:itsmeaning.

newyork:harcourt,braceandcompany,1940.pp.114-122.

inrecentyearsihavepublishedsomeofmyreflectionsonthemodernizationofjapanandchina.whatiamnowgoingtostateisasummaryandrestatementofwhatihavebeenthinkingonthisfascinatingsubjectduringtheseyears.

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firstofall,wemuststatetheproblemofourinquiry.whatspecialaspectofthemodernizationofchinaandjapanarousesourcuriosityandrequiresourstudyandexplanation?

generallyspeaking,therearetwoaspectsofthequestionthathavepuzzledtheoutsideworldanddemandedsomeexplanation.

formanydecades,downtoveryrecentyears,thequestionoftenaskedwas:whywasjapansoessfulinhertaskofmodernization,andwhywaschinasoessful?thatisthefirstaspectofthequestion,whichhascalledforthmanyexplanations.

butinrecentyears,theproblemhasradicallychanged.afteralmostacenturyofhesitationandresistance,chinahasemergedasamodernnation,notsufficientlywesternized(itistrue)inhermaterialaspects,butfullymoderninheroutlookonlifeandfeelingcompletelyathomeinthemodernworld.ontheotherhand,japan,afterseventyyearsofapparentlyrapidmodernization,issuddenlydiscoveredbytheoutsideworldashavingneverbeentransformedinallthefundamentalaspectsofhernationallife.professorg.c.allen,oneofthemostsympatheticinterpretersofjapan,said:"ifthechangesinsomeoftheaspectsofher[japan's]lifehavebeenfar-reaching,thepersistenceofthetraditionalinotheraspectsisequallyremarkablethecontrastsbetweentheseinnovationsandthesolidcoreofancienthabitareasstrikingasevertheywere."professoremilledererandemylederer-seidler,intheirjointworkonjapanintransition,anothermostsympatheticinterpretationofjapaneselife,havedweltonthemoststrangephenomenoninjapan,namely,her"immunitytothedialecticplayofdeep-lyingevolutionaryforces,"herbeing"devoidofdialecticanddynamic"andherancientcivilization"offeringstrongresistancetothefacileassimilationofforeignelements."

inshort,thenewproblemisjusttheoppositeoftheolderpuzzle.itis:whyhaschinaatlasteededinoverthrowingheroldcivilizationandinachievingachineserenaissance?andwhyhasjapan,aftersevendecadesofextraordinarilyessfulmodernization,yetfailedtobreakupher"solidcoreofancienthabit"?thatisthesecondaspectoftheproblem.

anytheorythatattemptstoexplainthefirstsetofquestionsmustalsoexplainsatisfactorilythesecondsetofquestions.andviceversa.

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in1933,iwastryingtosolvethefirstsetofpuzzles:whyandhowhasjapaneeded,andchinafailed,toachieveaspeedyandorderlyculturalreadjustmentandbringaboutthemodernizationnecessaryfornationalsurvivalinthenewworld?theexplanationiofferedthenwasthatchinaandjapanhadbeengoingthroughtwodistincttypesofculturalresponse.themodernizationinjapanidescribedasthetypeofculturaltransformationundercentralizedcontrol,madepossiblebytheexistenceofapowerfulrulingclass—thefeudalmilitaristiccaste—fromwhichcametheleadersofthereformationwhonotonlydecidedforthenationwhattochangeandwhatnottochange,butwhoalsohadthepoliticalpowertocarryouttheirdecisions.ontheotherhand,ipointedout,china,becauseofthenonexistenceofarulingclassandbecauseofthethoroughlydemocratizedsocialstructure,couldonlygothroughtheslowandoftenwastefulprocessofculturaltransformationthroughthegradualanddiffusedpenetrationandassimilationofideasandpractices,usuallyinitiatingfromafewindividuals,slowlywinningafollowing,andfinallyachievingsignificantchangeswhenasufficientnumberofpeopleareconvincedoftheirsuperiorreasonableness,convenience,orefficacy.

theadvantagesofthejapanesetypeofmodernizationunderthecentralizedcontrolofarulingclassareeasytosee.itisorderly,economical,continuous,stable,andeffective.but,ipointout,"itisnotwithoutveryimportantdisadvantages.thejapaneseleadersundertookthisrapidtransformationatsoearlyatimethateventhemostfarsightedofthemcouldonlyseeandunderstandcertainsuperficialphasesofthewesterncivilization.manyotherphaseshaveescapedtheirattention.and,intheiranxietytopreservetheirnationalheritageandtostrengthentheholdofthestateandthedynastyoverthepeople,theyhavecarefullyprotectedagreatmanyelementsofthetraditionaljapanfromthecontactandcontagionofthenewcivilizationmuchofthetraditionalmedievalcultureisartificiallyprotectedbyastrongshellofmilitantmodernity.muchthatispreservedisofgreatbeautyandpermanentvalue;butnotalittleofitisprimitiveandpregnantwithgravedangersofvolcaniceruption."

thedisadvantagesofthechinesetypeofculturalchangesthroughgradualdiffusionandpenetrationarenumerous:theyareslow,sporadic,andoftenwasteful,becausemuchundermininganderosionarenecessarybeforeanythingcanbechanged.

buttheyhavealsoundeniableadvantages.theyarevoluntary.fromthelipsticktotheliteraryrevolution,fromthefootweartotheoverthrowofthemonarchy,allhasbeenvoluntaryandinabroadsense"reasoned."nothinginchinaistoosacredtobeprotectedfromthecontactandcontagionoftheinvadingcivilizationofthewest.andnoman,noranyclass,ispowerfulenoughtoprotectanyinstitutionfromthiscontactandchange.inshort,thisprocessoflongexposureandslowpermeationoftenresultsinculturalchangeswhicharebothfundamentalandpermanent.

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this,ingeneral,wasmytheoryregardingthemodernizationofchinaandjapan.japanwasmodernizedunderthepowerfulleadershipandcontrolofarulingclass,andchina,becauseofthenonexistenceofsuchcontrolfromabove,wasmodernizedthroughthelongprocessoffreecontact,gradualdiffusion,andvoluntaryfollowing.

wemayask:canthistheorysatisfactorilyexplainallthefourphasesofourmaininquiry?canitexplainthemarvelouslyrapidwesternizationofjapanandatthesametimetheunchangingsolidcoreofmedievaljapan?canitexplainboththelongfailuresandtherecentessesinchina'smodernization?ithinknotonlythatitcan,butthatitistheonlyhypothesiswhichcansatisfactorilyresolvealltheapparentcontradictionsoftheproblem.

accordingtomytheory,theearlyandrapidessesofthemeijireformationwerebroughtaboutbytheeffectiveleadershipandpowerfulcontroloftherulingclass,whichhappenedtocoincidewiththemilitaristicclassoffeudaljapanandwhichnaturallywasmostanxiousandatthesametimebestfittedtoundertaketheadoptionofthewesternarmamentsandmethodsofwarfare.asprofessorledererhaspointedout,"itcouldhardlybeforeseenatthisearlystagethatinthiscaseonestepleadsinexorablytoasecond.""sinceamodernmilitarystateispossibleonlyonconditionthatitisanindustrializedstate,japanhadtodevelopinthatdirection.butindustrialization,byreasonoftheeconomicinterrelationshipbetweenvarioustypesofproduction,meansalsothedevelopmentofbranchesofindustrywhicharenotessentialtotheconductofwarjustasmilitarismreachesbeyonditselfintoindustry,sothetechnologicalsystemofindustrialismhasfar-reachingimplicationsforthesocialsystem."theleadersofjapanesewesternizationstartedoutwiththedesiretoadoptwesternmilitarismandhavetherebybroughtaboutwhatprofessorlederercallsthe"militaristicindustrialsystem."

ofallthenon-europeancountrieswithwhichtheeuropeancivilizationhascomeintocontact,japanistheonlynationthathasessfullylearnedandmasteredthatonephaseoftheoccidentalcivilizationwhichismostcovetedbyallraces,namely,itsmilitaristicphase.japanhaseededwhereallthesenon-europeancountrieshaveinvariablyfailed.thishistoricalmysterycanonlybeexplainedbythefactthatnoothernon-europeancountrywassofavoredwiththeexistenceofamilitaristiccastewhichhasbeenthegoverningclassofthecountryforovertwelvecenturies.

butthismilitaristiccastewasnotanenlightenedorintellectualclass.itsleaderswerecourageous,pragmatic,patriotic,andinsomecasesstatesmanlike.buttheywerelimitedintheirvisionsandintheirunderstandingofthenewcivilizationthathadknockedattheirshores.theythought,justaslafcadiohearnthought,thattheycouldbuildupawesternwarmachinewhichshouldbemadetoserveasaprotectivewallbehindwhichallthetraditionalvaluesoftokugawajapanshouldbepreservedunaltered.

unfortunatelyforjapanandfortheworld,themilitaryessesofjapanagainstrussiaandchinatendedtovindicatethesenarrow-visionedleaders.theresulthasbeenaneffectiveartificialprotectionandsolidificationofthetraditionalcultureofmedievaljapanagainstthe"dangerous"contactandinfluenceofthenewideasandpracticesoftheever-changingworld.bytheuseofthemodernmeansofrigidlycontrollededucation,propaganda,andcensorship,andbytheuseofthepeculiarlyjapanesemethodsofinculcatingthecultofemperor-worship,japanhaseededinreinforcingandconsolidatingthe"solidcore"ofunchangingmedievalcultureleftoverfromthe250yearsoftokugawaisolation.itwasthesamecentralizedleadershipandcontrolwhichmadepossibletherapidandessfulchangesinmilitarizationandindustrializationandwhichhasalsodeliberatelyprotectedandsolidifiedthetraditionalvaluesandmadethem"immunetothedialecticplayofdeep-lyingevolutionaryforces."

thesametheoryalsoexplainsthehistoryofmodernizationinchina.theearlyfailuresinthechineseattemptsatwesternizationwerealmostentirelyduetotheabsenceofthefactorswhichhavemadethejapanesemeijireformationaess.thechineseleaders,too,wantedtoadoptthewesternarmamentsandmethodsofwarfareandtobuildupthenewindustries.theirsloganwas"futs'iang"(wealthandstrength).buttherewasinchinaneitherthemilitaristictradition,noraneffectiveandpowerfulgoverningclasstoundertaketheleadershipanddirectioninsuchgiganticenterprises.chinahadcomeoutoffeudalismatleasttwenty-onecenturiesago;thesocialstructurehadbeenthoroughlydemocratized;andgovernmentalpolicy,religion,philosophy,literature,andsocialusagehadcombinedtocondemnmilitarismanddespisethesoldier.whereasthesamuraiwasthemosthighlyesteemedclassinjapan,thesoldierrankedthelowestinthechinesesocialscale.thereforethenewchinesearmyandthenewchinesenavyoftheeightiesandninetiesofthelastcenturyweredoomedtofailure.withthedestructionofthechinesenavyin1894-95,allthenewindustries—theshipyard,themerchantmarine,thegovernment-operatedironandsteelindustry—whichweretofeedandsupportthenewwarmachine,graduallycametonought.thegovernmentandthedynastywerethusdiscreditedintheirearlyeffortsinmodernization.afterthefailureofthereformsof1898andthetragedyoftheboxeruprisingof1900,thediscreditingofthedynastyandthegovernmentwascomplete.fromthattimeon,china'smainendeavorwastodestroythatcenterofignoranceandreactionism—themonarchyanditsparaphernalia—andthentobuildupanewcenterofpoliticalauthorityandleadership.

thus,whilejapan'sfirstessesinwesternizationwereachievedundertheleadershipandcontrolofherfeudal-militaristicclass,chinahashadtospendthreeorfourdecadesintheeffortoffirstremovingthemonarchyandlaterdestroyingthenewlyarisenmilitarists.ithasbeenfoundnecessaryforchinatobringaboutapoliticalrevolutionasthepreconditionforhermodernization.

in1911-12,therevolutioneededinoverthrowingthealienruleandthemonarchytogetherwithitshistoricalaccompaniments.thepoliticalrevolutionwasineverysenseasocialandculturalemancipation.inacountrywherethereisnorulingclass,theoverthrowofthemonarchydestroysthelastpossibilityofacentralizedcontrolinsocialchangeandculturaltransformation.itmakespossibleanatmosphereoffreecontact,freejudgment,andcriticism,freeappreciation,freeadvocacy,andvoluntaryacceptance.

whathasbeencalledthechineserenaissanceisthenaturalproductofthisatmosphereoffreedom.alltheimportantphasesofculturalchangeinchinahavebeentheresultofthisfreecontactandfreediffusionofnewideasandpractices,whichareimpossibleinjapanunderrigiddynasticandmilitaristictaboos.thenetoutcomeisthatmodernchinahasundoubtedlyachievedmorefar-reachingandmoreprofoundtransformationsinthesocial,political,intellectual,andreligiouslifethantheso-called"modernjapan"haseverdoneinsimilarfields.

iwishtociteoneimportantandfundamentalfactasillustrationofthecharacteroftheculturalchangeinchina.irefertothespiritoffreeandfearlesscriticismwhichtheleadersofchinahaveappliedtothestudyandexaminationoftheirownsocial,political,historical,andreligiousinstitutions.itisnoaccidentthatallthemenwhohaveexertedthegreatestinfluenceoverthechinesenationforthelastfortyyears—liangch'i-ch'ao,ts'aiyuan-p'ei,wuching-heng,chentu-shiu,andothers—havebeenmenwhoknowourhistoricalheritagecriticallyandwhohavehadthemoralcourageruthlesslytocriticizeitsevilandweakaspectsandtoadvocatewholeheartedchanges.neitherconfucius,norlao-tse,northebuddha,norchuhsi;neitherthemonarchy,northefamily,norreligion,istoosacredtobeexemptfromtheirdoubtandcriticism.anationthathasencouragedhonestdoubtandfreecriticismeveninmatterstouchingthesacredandmosttime-honoredinstitutionsisachievingamodernityundreamedofbyitsneighborswhoseintellectualleadersarepersecutedandpunishedforhavingtaughtthirtyyearsagoacertaintheoryofconstitutionallaworforhavingestedthatcertainsacredtreasuresatacertainshrinemightbeofdoubtfulauthenticity.

tosumup,themodernizationinchinaillustratestheviewthat,intheabsenceofcentralizedcontrolfromabove,culturalchangesofbasicimportancemaytakeplacethroughtheprocessoffreecontactandslowdiffusion.itisthereversesideofwhathashappenedinjapan.thebreakdownofthemonarchyanditsparaphernaliahasremovedthepossibilityofartificialprotectionandsolidificationoftheoldculture,whichisthenthrownopentothenaturalprocessesofculturaltransformationthroughfreecontactandvoluntaryacceptance.

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ifihaveanymoraltopresentitisthis:freedomofcontactandchoiceisthemostessentialconditionforculturaldiffusionandchange.wherevertwocivilizationscomeintocontact,therearenaturaltendencies(orlaws)ofonepeoplelearningandborrowingfromtheotherwhateachlacksorrecognizesasofsuperiorutilityorbeauty.thesenaturaltendenciesofculturaldiffusionwillhavefreeplayifonlythepeoplesareallowedfreecontactwiththenewideasandpractices.

wheresuchfreedomisdeniedtoapeople,whereartificialisolationandsolidificationareconsciouslyandeffectivelycarriedoutwithregardeithertoawholecultureortocertainspeciallyprizedaspectsofit,therearisesthestrangephenomenonofthe"solidcoreofancienthabit""devoidofdialecticanddynamic,"suchashasbeenfoundinpresent-dayjapan.

thereisreallynomysteryinthisunchangingjapanafterseventyyearsofmarvelouslyrapidchangeinthemilitaristicindustrialsystem.thereisnotruthinthetheory,forexample,thatthejapanesecivilizationhasbeenabletoresistchangebecauseithasitspeculiarvitalityandhasattained"thecompletedperfectionofitsforms."thefashionofmen'sdressinthewesternworlddoesnotchangesorapidlyasthatofwomen—canwesaythatmen'sdresshasachievedspecialvitalityand"thecompletedperfectionofform"?inthesameway,sittingonthefloor,forexample,wasdiscardedinchinasolongagothathistorianshavedifficultyindatingthefirstuseofchairsandtables.butthejapanesetothisdaycontinuetositonthefloor.thatdoesnotmeanthecustomofsittingonthefloorhasanyspecial"vitality"orhasattained"completedperfectionofform."

noristheremuchtruthintheviewthatthejapanesearenaturallyclumsyinunderstandingandconservativeintheiroutlook.lackofunderstandingneverpreventsapeoplefromacceptingnewfads.japanprobablyneverunderstoodthevariousschoolsofbuddhismwhensheacceptedthem.(certainlychinadidnotunderstandsomeofthemwhensheadoptedthem.)besides,apeoplecanalwayslearn.europeanobserversintheseventeenthcenturyrecordedthatthejapaneseknew"nothingofmathematics,moreespeciallyofitsdeeperandspeculativeparts."butwenowknowthejapanesecanbecomeaccomplishedmathematicians.

astotheirnativeconservatism,thehistoryofearlyjapanesecontactswithkorea,china,andeuropeonlyprovesthecontrary.theylearnedfromtheseforeignpeopleseverythingtheycouldlearn,notexcludingthingsaffectingtheirsocial,political,andreligiousinstitutions.inrecordingtheessofthejesuitsinjapan,sansomsaid:"thoughanumberoftheirconvertswerebeyondalldoubtgenuinetothepointoffanaticismandadheredtotheirnewfaithinthefaceofgreatdanger,onecannotbutsuspectthatithad,byoneofthosecrazeswhichhaveoftensweptoverjapan,becomethefashiontoapethecustomsofforeigners,includingtheirreligion.weknowthatrosariesandcrucifixeswereeagerlyboughtandwornbymanywhoweremodishtowearforeignclothesandtobeabletorecitealatinprayer."

icannotthereforeescapetheconclusionthatitwillbetheelementoffreedomthatmayyetsomedaybreakdownthe"solidcoreofancienthabit"injapanjustasithasalreadybrokenitdowninchina.

china'spowerofresistance

thecarnegiemagazine

nov.,1941.vol.15.no.6.pp.163-171.

iamverygladtobeheretonighttocelebratefounder'sdayinhonorof

andrewcarnegie,whodidsomuchforpeaceintheworld.thisbeautifulcarnegieinstitutehasalwaysdevoteditselftothefounder'sidealsofacommonbrotherhoodandtheestablishmentofthepeaceandsecurityofallmen.

bythefirstweekofnovember,japan'swarinchinawillbefifty-twomonthsold.chinahasbeenfightingforfouryearsandfourmonths.

youwillprobablyaskmehowitispossibleforchinatofightonsolongundersuchgreathandicapsagainstsuchaformidablefoe.china'sfouryears'fightagainstjapaneseaggressionhasbeencalledamodernmiracle,andishalldevotemyallottedtimetoanexplanationofthefactorswhichhavemadethismiraclepossible.

inbrief,therearefivemainfactorswhichhavemadeupchina'ssustainingpower:

1.space

2.number

3.historicalunity

4.internalreconstruction